Microplastics as pesticide vectors in soil: bridging aqueous insights to terrestrial co-contamination risks and ecosystem impacts
Abstract
Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) have emerged as pervasive soil contaminants with significant potential to alter the environmental fate and ecological impacts of co-occurring pesticides. This comprehensive review synthesizes current knowledge on MNP-pesticide interactions in terrestrial systems, bridging mechanistic insights from aquatic studies to soil-specific processes. We critically evaluate how MNP properties (polymer type, size, aging state) and environmental conditions (pH, temperature, organic matter) govern pesticide sorption through hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, π-π electron donor-acceptor forces, and electrostatic mechanisms. The review demonstrates that MNPs generally enhance pesticide persistence in soil, with aged MNPs exhibiting stronger vector effects than pristine particles. Ecotoxicological evidence reveals that MNP-pesticide co-exposure often exacerbates adverse effects on soil organisms through amplified oxidative stress, metabolic disruption, and altered bioaccumulation patterns, though outcomes are highly context-dependent. Critical knowledge gaps persist regarding field-realistic aging processes, size-specific adsorption isotherms under environmentally relevant conditions, and long-term impacts on plant health and food security. Future research must prioritize standardized methodologies for combined toxicity assessment, predictive modeling of co-contaminant transport, and development of risk assessment frameworks that account for the dynamic nature of weathered MNPs as pesticide vectors in agricultural ecosystems.
Authors ⌄
- Department of Soil & Environmental Sciences, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
- Chemical Engineering & Oil Refining Department, Oil and Gas Engineering College, Basrah University for Oil and Gas, Basra, Iraq
- Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
- Institute of Crop Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology and Ecology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of China, Beijing, 100081, China
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research, UCL Division of Medicine,, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Plant Protection, Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan
- Soil Fertility, Soil water testing Laboratory, Multan, Pakistan
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
Citations (0) ⌄
References ⌄
1. Cameron, K. C., Di, H. J. & McLaren, R. G. Is soil an appropriate dumping ground for our wastes? Soil Res. 35, 995 (1997).
2. De Souza, R. M. et al. Occurrence, impacts and general aspects of pesticides in surface water: A review. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 135, 22–37 (2020).
3. Sun, S., Sidhu, V., Rong, Y. & Zheng, Y. Pesticide Pollution in Agricultural Soils and Sustainable Remediation Methods: a Review. Curr. Pollut. Rep. 4, 240–250 (2018).
4. Hani̇f, M. N. Factors Affecting Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE): Meta Analysis. Türkiye Tarımsal Araştırmalar Derg. 10, 231–242 (2023).
5. Le Moal, M. et al. Eutrophication: A new wine in an old bottle? Sci. Total Environ. 651, 1–11 (2019).
6. Smith, K. A. Changing views of nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soil: key controlling processes and assessment at different spatial scales. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 68, 137–155 (2017).
7. Hanif, M. N. et al. Impact of microplastics on soil (physical and chemical) properties, soil biological properties/soil biota, and response of plants to it: a review. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 21, 10277–10318 (2024).
8. Rillig, M. C. & Lehmann, A. Microplastic in terrestrial ecosystems. Science 368, 1430–1431 (2020).
9. Guo, B. et al. Quantification of pesticide residues on plastic mulching films in typical farmlands of the North China. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 14, (2020).
10. Agboola, O. D. & Benson, N. U. Physisorption and Chemisorption Mechanisms Influencing Micro (Nano) Plastics-Organic Chemical Contaminants Interactions: A Review. Front. Environ. Sci. 9, (2021).
11. Junaid, M., Liu, S., Chen, G., Liao, H. & Wang, J. Transgenerational impacts of micro(nano)plastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment. J. Hazard. Mater. 443, 130274 (2023).
12. Junaid, M. et al. Ecotoxicological impacts associated with the interplay between micro(nano)plastics and pesticides in aquatic and terrestrial environments. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 165, 117133 (2023).
13. Martinho, S. D., Fernandes, V. C., Figueiredo, S. A. & Delerue-Matos, C. Microplastic Pollution Focused on Sources, Distribution, Contaminant Interactions, Analytical Methods, and Wastewater Removal Strategies: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 19, 5610 (2022).
14. Peña, A., Rodríguez-Liébana, J. A. & Delgado-Moreno, L. Interactions of Microplastics with Pesticides in Soils and Their Ecotoxicological Implications. Agronomy 13, 701 (2023).
15. Tang, K. H. D. Interactions of Microplastics with Persistent Organic Pollutants and the Ecotoxicological Effects: A Review. Trop. Aquat. Soil Pollut. 1, 24–34 (2021).
16. Rodríguez-Seijo, A., Santos, B., Silva, E. F. da, Cachada, A. & Pereira, R. Assessment of microplastics as a source and carriers of pesticides to earthworms (Eisenia fetida). in SETAC Europe 29th Annual Meeting Abstract Book. One Environment. One Health. Sustainable Societies. (SETAC Europe, Helsinki, Finland, 2019).
17. Yadav, I. C. et al. Current status of persistent organic pesticides residues in air, water, and soil, and their possible effect on neighboring countries: A comprehensive review of India. Sci. Total Environ. 511, 123–137 (2015).
18. Tiwari, A. K., Hasan, W., Ishar, A. K. & Hazarika, S. Understanding the Physicochemical Dynamics of Pesticides: Implications for Environmental Management and Sustainable Agriculture. Agric. Arch. Int. J. 3, 12–17 (2024).
19. Bao, X. et al. Microplastics derived from plastic mulch films and their carrier function effect on the environmental risk of pesticides. Sci. Total Environ. 924, 171472 (2024).
20. Sajjad, M. et al. Microplastics in the soil environment: A critical review. Environ. Technol. Innov. 27, 102408 (2022).
21. Lei, L. et al. Polystyrene (nano)microplastics cause size-dependent neurotoxicity, oxidative damage and other adverse effects in Caenorhabditis elegans. Environ. Sci. Nano 5, 2009–2020 (2018).
22. Gigault, J. et al. Current opinion: What is a nanoplastic? Environ. Pollut. 235, 1030–1034 (2018).
23. Yu, F., Yang, C., Zhu, Z., Bai, X. & Ma, J. Adsorption behavior of organic pollutants and metals on micro/nanoplastics in the aquatic environment. Sci. Total Environ. 694, 133643 (2019).
24. Wang, F. et al. Sorption Behavior and Mechanisms of Organic Contaminants to Nano and Microplastics. Molecules 25, 1827 (2020).
25. Junaid, M. & Wang, J. Interaction of nanoplastics with extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in the aquatic environment: A special reference to eco-corona formation and associated impacts. Water Res. 201, 117319 (2021).
26. Veclin, C. et al. Effect of the Surface Hydrophobicity–Morphology–Functionality of Nanoplastics on Their Homoaggregation in Seawater. ACS EST Water 2, 88–95 (2022).
27. Lamoree, M. H. et al. Health impacts of microplastic and nanoplastic exposure. Nat. Med. 31, 2873–2887 (2025).
28. Chakraborty, A., Verma, P. & Mondal, S. Effects of Pesticides and Plastics on Soil Microbiome. in Soil Microbiome in Green Technology Sustainability (eds Aransiola, S. A., Atta, H. I. & Maddela, N. R.) 289–310 (Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, 2024). doi:10.1007/978-3-031-71844-1_12.
29. Wanner, P. Plastic in agricultural soils – A global risk for groundwater systems and drinking water supplies? – A review. Chemosphere 264, 128453 (2021).
30. Kretzschmar, R., Borkovec, M., Grolimund, D. & Elimelech, M. Mobile Subsurface Colloids and Their Role in Contaminant Transport. in Advances in Agronomy 121–193 (Elsevier BV, 1999). doi:10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60427-7.
31. Hofmann, T. & Kammer, F. V. D. Estimating the relevance of engineered carbonaceous nanoparticle facilitated transport of hydrophobic organic contaminants in porous media. Environ. Pollut. 157, 1117–1126 (2009).
32. Hüffer, T. et al. Polyethylene microplastics influence the transport of organic contaminants in soil. Sci. Total Environ. 657, 242–247 (2019).
33. Wu, S. et al. The vertical migration of a pesticide mixture in sandy soil is strongly driven by their sorption behavior and can be altered by Polyethylene Microplastics. J. Hazard. Mater. 494, 138511 (2025).
34. Demirci, Ö. Interactions Between Various Classes of Pesticides and Microplastics. Int. J. Agric. Environ. Food Sci. 9, 321–327 (2025).
35. Fajardo, C. et al. Assessing the role of polyethylene microplastics as a vector for organic pollutants in soil: Ecotoxicological and molecular approaches. Chemosphere 288, 132460 (2022).
36. Wang, J., Li, J., Wang, Q. & Sun, Y. Microplastics as a Vector for HOC Bioaccumulation in Earthworm Eisenia fetida in Soil: Importance of Chemical Diffusion and Particle Size. Environ. Sci. Technol. 54, 12154–12163 (2020).
37. Brochado, M. G. D. S. et al. Does Microplastic Contamination in Agricultural Soils Decrease the Efficiency of Herbicides for Weed Control? Microplastics 3, 771–788 (2024).
38. Lv, Z.-Y., Wang, C.-Y., Liu, S.-X., Xu, Y.-C. & Xu, K. Effect of Microplastic Coexistence Conditions on The Environmental Behavior of Atrazine On Soil. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res. 21, 3659–3673 (2023).
39. Li, H., Wang, F., Li, J., Deng, S. & Zhang, S. Adsorption of three pesticides on polyethylene microplastics in aqueous solutions: Kinetics, isotherms, thermodynamics, and molecular dynamics simulation. Chemosphere 264, 128556 (2021).
40. Liu, H., Li, J., Zhao, M., Li, Y. & Chen, Y. Remediation of oil-based drill cuttings using low-temperature thermal desorption: Performance and kinetics modeling. Chemosphere 235, 1081–1088 (2019).
41. Zhang, C. et al. Sorption of organochlorine pesticides on polyethylene microplastics in soil suspension. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 223, 112591 (2021).
42. Zhou, J., Wen, Y., Cheng, H., Zang, H. & Jones, D. L. Simazine degradation in agroecosystems: Will it be affected by the type and amount of microplastic pollution? Land Degrad. Dev. 33, 1128–1136 (2022).
43. Yang, X. et al. Influence of microplastic addition on glyphosate decay and soil microbial activities in Chinese loess soil. Environ. Pollut. 242, 338–347 (2018).
44. Šunta, U., Prosenc, F., Trebše, P., Bulc, T. G. & Kralj, M. B. Adsorption of acetamiprid, chlorantraniliprole and flubendiamide on different type of microplastics present in alluvial soil. Chemosphere 261, 127762 (2020).
45. Fang, S. et al. Adsorption behavior of three triazole fungicides on polystyrene microplastics. Sci. Total Environ. 691, 1119–1126 (2019).
46. Nie, E. et al. Effects of charged polystyrene microplastics on the bioavailability of dufulin in tomato plant. J. Hazard. Mater. 467, 133748 (2024).
47. Hai, N. et al. Effects of Microplastics on the Adsorption and Bioavailability of Three Strobilurin Fungicides. ACS Omega 5, 30679–30686 (2020).
48. Guo, J. et al. Effects of microplastics on the environmental behaviors of the herbicide atrazine in soil: Dissipation, adsorption, and bioconcentration. J. Hazard. Mater. 465, 133085 (2024).
49. Concha-Graña, E., Moscoso-Pérez, C. M., López-Mahía, P. & Muniategui-Lorenzo, S. Adsorption of pesticides and personal care products on pristine and weathered microplastics in the marine environment. Comparison between bio-based and conventional plastics. Sci. Total Environ. 848, 157703 (2022).
50. Wang, F. et al. The influence of polyethylene microplastics on pesticide residue and degradation in the aquatic environment. J. Hazard. Mater. 394, 122517 (2020).
51. Hu, M., Huang, L., Wang, Y., Tan, H. & Yu, X. Insight into the effect of microplastics on the adsorption and degradation behavior of thiamethoxam in agricultural soils. Chemosphere 337, 139262 (2023).
52. Hu, M. et al. The effect of microplastics on behaviors of chiral imidazolinone herbicides in the aquatic environment: Residue, degradation and distribution. J. Hazard. Mater. 418, 126176 (2021).
53. Yang, J. et al. Effects of microplastics on 3,5-dichloroaniline adsorption, degradation, bioaccumulation and phytotoxicity in soil-chive systems. Environ. Geochem. Health 46, 519 (2024).
54. Wu, C. et al. Microplastics mulch film affects the environmental behavior of adsorption and degradation of pesticide residues in soil. Environ. Res. 214, 114133 (2022).
55. Xu, Z. et al. Environmentally relevant concentrations of microplastic exhibits negligible impacts on thiacloprid dissipation and enzyme activity in soil. Environ. Res. 189, 109892 (2020).
56. Chiou, C. T., Peters, L. J. & Freed, V. H. A Physical Concept of Soil-Water Equilibria for Nonionic Organic Compounds. Science 206, 831–832 (1979).
57. Schwarzenbach, R. P., Gschwend, P. M. & Imboden, D. M. Organic Liquid-Water Partitioning. in Environmental Organic Chemistry 213–244 (Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2005).
58. Karickhoff, S., Brown, D. & Scott, T. Sorption of hydrophobic pollutants on natural sediments. Water Res. 13, 241–248 (1979).
59. Razanajatovo, R. M., Ding, J., Zhang, S., Jiang, H. & Zou, H. Sorption and desorption of selected pharmaceuticals by polyethylene microplastics. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 136, 516–523 (2018).
60. Tourinho, P. S., Kočí, V., Loureiro, S. & Van Gestel, C. A. M. Partitioning of chemical contaminants to microplastics: Sorption mechanisms, environmental distribution and effects on toxicity and bioaccumulation. Environ. Pollut. 252, 1246–1256 (2019).
61. Endo, S., Droge, S. T. J. & Goss, K.-U. Polyparameter Linear Free Energy Models for Polyacrylate Fiber−Water Partition Coefficients to Evaluate the Efficiency of Solid-Phase Microextraction. Anal. Chem. 83, 1394–1400 (2011).
62. Liu, X., Xu, J., Zhao, Y., Shi, H. & Huang, C.-H. Hydrophobic sorption behaviors of 17β-Estradiol on environmental microplastics. Chemosphere 226, 726–735 (2019).
63. Hüffer, T. & Hofmann, T. Sorption of non-polar organic compounds by micro-sized plastic particles in aqueous solution. Environ. Pollut. 214, 194–201 (2016).
64. Wang, T. et al. Adsorption behavior and mechanism of five pesticides on microplastics from agricultural polyethylene films. Chemosphere 244, 125491 (2020).
65. Wu, P., Cai, Z., Jin, H. & Tang, Y. Adsorption mechanisms of five bisphenol analogues on PVC microplastics. Sci. Total Environ. 650, 671–678 (2019).
66. Fu, L., Li, J., Wang, G., Luan, Y. & Dai, W. Adsorption behavior of organic pollutants on microplastics. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 217, 112207 (2021).
67. Junck, J., Diagboya, P. N., Peqini, A., Rohnke, M. & Düring, R.-A. Mechanistic interpretation of the sorption of terbuthylazine pesticide onto aged microplastics. Environ. Pollut. 345, 123502 (2024).
68. Lan, T. et al. A comparative study on the adsorption behavior of pesticides by pristine and aged microplastics from agricultural polyethylene soil films. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 209, 111781 (2021).
69. Mo, Q. et al. Adsorption mechanism of two pesticides on polyethylene and polypropylene microplastics: DFT calculations and particle size effects. Environ. Pollut. 291, 118120 (2021).
70. Sahai, H. et al. Exploring sorption of pesticides and PAHs in microplastics derived from plastic mulch films used in modern agriculture. Chemosphere 333, 138959 (2023).
71. Miranda, M. N., Lado Ribeiro, A. R., Silva, A. M. T. & Pereira, M. F. R. Can aged microplastics be transport vectors for organic micropollutants? – Sorption and phytotoxicity tests. Sci. Total Environ. 850, 158073 (2022).
72. Santana, G. B. et al. Photoaging effects on polyethylene microplastics: Structural changes and chlorpyrifos adsorption. Mar. Environ. Res. 203, 106844 (2025).
73. Tang, K. H. D. Effects of Microplastics on Bioavailability, Persistence and Toxicity of Plant Pesticides: An Agricultural Perspective. Agriculture 15, 356 (2025).
74. Jadhav, B. & Medyńska-Juraszek, A. Microplastic and Nanoplastic in Crops: Possible Adverse Effects to Crop Production and Contaminant Transfer in the Food Chain. Plants 13, 2526 (2024).
75. Binda, G. et al. Physicochemical and biological ageing processes of (micro)plastics in the environment: a multi-tiered study on polyethylene. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 6298–6312 (2023).
76. Lang, M. et al. Fenton aging significantly affects the heavy metal adsorption capacity of polystyrene microplastics. Sci. Total Environ. 722, 137762 (2020).
77. Sun, Y. et al. Laboratory simulation of microplastics weathering and its adsorption behaviors in an aqueous environment: A systematic review. Environ. Pollut. 265, 114864 (2020).
78. Li, Y. et al. Adsorption of azoxystrobin and pyraclostrobin onto degradable and non-degradable microplastics: Performance and mechanism. Sci. Total Environ. 912, 169453 (2024).
79. Cao, H. et al. Aging of biodegradable-mulch-derived microplastics reduces their sorption capacity of atrazine. Environ. Pollut. 331, 121877 (2023).
80. Lan, T. et al. A comparative study on the adsorption behavior and mechanism of pesticides on agricultural film microplastics and straw degradation products. Chemosphere 303, 135058 (2022).
81. Gong, W. et al. Comparative analysis on the sorption kinetics and isotherms of fipronil on nondegradable and biodegradable microplastics. Environ. Pollut. 254, 112927 (2019).
82. Zhang, Q. et al. Adsorption of neonicotinoid insecticides by mulch film-derived microplastics and their combined toxicity. Sci. Total Environ. 955, 177238 (2024).
83. Song, W. et al. Polyethylene mulch film-derived microplastics enhance the bioaccumulation of atrazine in two earthworm species (Eisenia fetida and Metaphire guillelmi) via carrier effects. J. Hazard. Mater. 455, 131603 (2023).
84. Wang, C., Wang, L., Ok, Y. S., Tsang, D. C. W. & Hou, D. Soil plastisphere: Exploration methods, influencing factors, and ecological insights. J. Hazard. Mater. 430, 128503 (2022).
85. Fan, X. et al. Investigation on the adsorption and desorption behaviors of antibiotics by degradable MPs with or without UV ageing process. J. Hazard. Mater. 401, 123363 (2021).
86. Ainali, N. M., Bikiaris, D. N. & Lambropoulou, D. A. Aging effects on low- and high-density polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene under UV irradiation: An insight into decomposition mechanism by Py-GC/MS for microplastic analysis. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 158, 105207 (2021).
87. Yang, S. et al. Studies on the transfer effect of aged polyethylene microplastics in soil-plant system. Chemosphere 349, 141001 (2024).
88. Völkl, M. et al. Pristine and artificially-aged polystyrene microplastic particles differ in regard to cellular response. J. Hazard. Mater. 435, 128955 (2022).
89. Velzeboer, I., Kwadijk, C. J. A. F. & Koelmans, A. A. Strong Sorption of PCBs to Nanoplastics, Microplastics, Carbon Nanotubes, and Fullerenes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 4869–4876 (2014).
90. Liu, X. et al. Adsorption behavior of azole fungicides on polystyrene and polyethylene microplastics. Chemosphere 308, 136280 (2022).
91. Ni, N. et al. Comparative analysis of the sorption behaviors and mechanisms of amide herbicides on biodegradable and nondegradable microplastics derived from agricultural plastic products. Environ. Pollut. 318, 120865 (2023).
92. Fatema, M. & Farenhorst, A. Sorption of pesticides by microplastics, charcoal, ash, and river sediments. J. Soils Sediments 22, 1876–1884 (2022).
93. Liu, P. et al. Effect of weathering on environmental behavior of microplastics: Properties, sorption and potential risks. Chemosphere 242, 125193 (2020).
94. Zhang, H. et al. Enhanced adsorption of oxytetracycline to weathered microplastic polystyrene: Kinetics, isotherms and influencing factors. Environ. Pollut. 243, 1550–1557 (2018).
95. Li, J., Zhang, K. & Zhang, H. Adsorption of antibiotics on microplastics. Environ. Pollut. 237, 460–467 (2018).
96. Wang, J. et al. Size effect of polystyrene microplastics on sorption of phenanthrene and nitrobenzene. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 173, 331–338 (2019).
97. Endo, S. et al. Concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in beached resin pellets: Variability among individual particles and regional differences. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50, 1103–1114 (2005).
98. Wang, J., Tan, Z., Peng, J., Qiu, Q. & Li, M. The behaviors of microplastics in the marine environment. Mar. Environ. Res. 113, 7–17 (2016).
99. Liu, G. et al. Sorption behavior and mechanism of hydrophilic organic chemicals to virgin and aged microplastics in freshwater and seawater. Environ. Pollut. 246, 26–33 (2019).
100. Seidensticker, S., Zarfl, C., Cirpka, O. A., Fellenberg, G. & Grathwohl, P. Shift in Mass Transfer of Wastewater Contaminants from Microplastics in the Presence of Dissolved Substances. Environ. Sci. Technol. 51, 12254–12263 (2017).
101. Chi, J., Yin, Y., Zhang, W., Putnis, C. V. & Wang, L. Nanoscale imaging of the simultaneous occlusion of nanoplastics and glyphosate within soil minerals. Environ. Sci. Nano 8, 2855–2865 (2021).
102. Liu, H. et al. Interactive effects of microplastics and glyphosate on the dynamics of soil dissolved organic matter in a Chinese loess soil. CATENA 182, 104177 (2019).
103. Pan, T. et al. New insights into the adsorption behavior of thiacloprid at the microfibers/water interface: Role of humic acid. Chemosphere 311, 136938 (2023).
104. Allen, T., Farley, S., Draper, J., Clement, C. & Polidoro, B. Variations in Sorption of Organochlorine Pesticides and PCBs across Six Different Plastic Polymers. J. Environ. Toxicol. Stud. 2, (2018).
105. Ateia, M. et al. Sorption behavior of real microplastics (MPs): Insights for organic micropollutants adsorption on a large set of well-characterized MPs. Sci. Total Environ. 720, 137634 (2020).
106. Belé, T. G. D. A. et al. Oxidation of microplastics by O3 and O3/H2O2: Surface modification and adsorption capacity. J. Water Process Eng. 41, 102072 (2021).
107. Beriot, N., Zomer, P., Zornoza, R. & Geissen, V. A laboratory comparison of the interactions between three plastic mulch types and 38 active substances found in pesticides. PeerJ 8, e9876 (2020).
108. Jiang, M. et al. Strong sorption of two fungicides onto biodegradable microplastics with emphasis on the negligible role of environmental factors. Environ. Pollut. 267, 115496 (2020).
109. Du, H., Zeng, F., Ma, H. & Xing, B. Identification of the aged microplastics film and its sorption of antibiotics and bactericides in aqueous and soil compartments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 185, 114312 (2022).
110. Zhao, L. et al. Sorption of five organic compounds by polar and nonpolar microplastics. Chemosphere 257, 127206 (2020).
111. Hartmann, N. B. et al. Microplastics as vectors for environmental contaminants: Exploring sorption, desorption, and transfer to biota. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 13, 488–493 (2017).
112. Karapanagioti, H. K. & Klontza, I. Testing phenanthrene distribution properties of virgin plastic pellets and plastic eroded pellets found on Lesvos island beaches (Greece). Mar. Environ. Res. 65, 283–290 (2008).
113. Wang, W. & Wang, J. Comparative evaluation of sorption kinetics and isotherms of pyrene onto microplastics. Chemosphere 193, 567–573 (2018).
114. Teuten, E. L. et al. Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364, 2027–2045 (2009).
115. Wang, Y., Liu, C., Wang, F. & Sun, Q. Behavior and mechanism of atrazine adsorption on pristine and aged microplastics in the aquatic environment: Kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Chemosphere 292, 133425 (2022).
116. Cui, N., Wang, P. & Xu, N. Sorption behaviour of tebuconazole on microplastics: kinetics, isotherms and influencing factors. Environ. Technol. 44, 3937–3948 (2023).
117. Liu, F. et al. Sources, characteristics, and in situ degradation of dissolved organic matters: A case study of a drinking water reservoir located in a cold-temperate forest. Environ. Res. 217, 114857 (2023).
118. Sharma, R. & Kaushik, H. Micro-plastics: an invisible danger to human health. Cgc Int. J. Contemp. Technol. Res. 3, 182–186 (2021).
119. Wu, C., Zhang, K., Huang, X. & Liu, J. Sorption of pharmaceuticals and personal care products to polyethylene debris. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23, 8819–8826 (2016).
120. Felsing, S. et al. A new approach in separating microplastics from environmental samples based on their electrostatic behavior. Environ. Pollut. 234, 20–28 (2018).
121. Martinho, S. D., Fernandes, V. C., Figueiredo, S. A. & Delerue-Matos, C. Study of the Potential Accumulation of the Pesticide Alpha-Endosulfan by Microplastics in Water Systems. Polymers 14, 3645 (2022).
122. Jiang, H., Chen, X. & Dai, Y. The carrier effect mechanism of butachlor in water by three typical microplastics. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 99232–99246 (2022).
123. Yurtsever, M. Y. M., Oz, N. O. N., Aksu, A. A. A., Balkis, N. B. N. & N, G. A. A. M. S. T. K. N. G. A. A. M. S. T. K. Hydrophobic Pesticide Endosulfan (α + β) and Endrin Sorption on Different Types of Microplastics. J. Chem. Soc. Pak. 42, 789–789 (2020).
124. Jiang, H., Xiong, Q., Chen, X., Pan, W. & Dai, Y. Carrier effect of S-metolachlor by microplastics and environmental risk assessment. J. Water Process Eng. 44, 102451 (2021).
125. Wang, Q. et al. The adsorption behavior of metals in aqueous solution by microplastics effected by UV radiation. J. Environ. Sci. 87, 272–280 (2020).
126. Yin, X. et al. Efficiency and mechanism of C18-functionalized magnetic nanoparticles for extracting weakly polar pesticides from human serum determined by UHPLC-QTOF-MS and molecular dynamics simulations. Environ. Pollut. 293, 118489 (2022).
127. Beigi, P., Ganjali, F., Hassanzadeh-Afruzi, F., Salehi, M. M. & Maleki, A. Enhancement of adsorption efficiency of crystal violet and chlorpyrifos onto pectin hydrogel@Fe3O4-bentonite as a versatile nanoadsorbent. Sci. Rep. 13, 10764 (2023).
128. Herrera, W. et al. Meta-analysis of metal nanoparticles degrading pesticides: what parameters are relevant? Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 30, 60168–60179 (2023).
129. Shrivas, K. et al. Removal of endrin and dieldrin isomeric pesticides through stereoselective adsorption behavior on the graphene oxide-magnetic nanoparticles. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 24, 24980–24988 (2017).
130. Tizro, N., Moniri, E., Saeb, K., Panahi, H. A. & Ardakani, S. S. Preparation and application of grafted β‑cyclodextrin/thermo-sensitive polymer onto modified Fe3O4@SiO2 nano-particles for fenitrothion elimination from aqueous solution. Microchem. J. 145, 59–67 (2019).
131. Li, D., He, M., Chen, B. & Hu, B. Metal organic frameworks-derived magnetic nanoporous carbon for preconcentration of organophosphorus pesticides from fruit samples followed by gas chromatography-flame photometric detection. J. Chromatogr. A 1583, 19–27 (2019).
132. Bruckmann, F. S. et al. Adsorption and Photocatalytic Degradation of Pesticides into Nanocomposites: A Review. Molecules 27, 6261 (2022).
133. Barreto, M., Lopes, I. & Oliveira, M. Micro(nano)plastics: A review on their interactions with pharmaceuticals and pesticides. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 169, 117307 (2023).
134. Cheng, Y. et al. Combined effects of mulch film-derived microplastics and atrazine on oxidative stress and gene expression in earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Sci. Total Environ. 746, 141280 (2020).
135. Fu, M. et al. Insight into Bioaccumulation of Decabromodiphenyl Ethane in Eisenia fetida Increased by Microplastics. Environ. Sci. Technol. 57, 13980–13990 (2023).
136. Sun, W. et al. Joint effects of microplastic and dufulin on bioaccumulation, oxidative stress and metabolic profile of the earthworm (Eisenia fetida). Chemosphere 263, 128171 (2021).
137. Li, X. et al. Joint toxic effects of polystyrene nanoparticles and organochlorine pesticides (chlordane and hexachlorocyclohexane) on Caenorhabditis elegans. Environ. Sci. Nano 7, 3062–3073 (2020).
138. Mishra, C. S. K. et al. Polyvinylchloride and polypropylene as adsorbents of the pesticide monocrotophos enhance oxidative stress in Eudrillus eugeniae (Kinberg). Chemosphere 295, 133837 (2022).
139. Boughattas, I. et al. Interactive effects of environmental microplastics and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) on the earthworm Eisenia andrei. J. Hazard. Mater. 424, 127578 (2022).
140. Rodríguez-Seijo, A., Santos, B., Ferreira Da Silva, E., Cachada, A. & Pereira, R. Low-density polyethylene microplastics as a source and carriers of agrochemicals to soil and earthworms. Environ. Chem. 16, 8–17 (2018).
141. Kiyama, Y., Miyahara, K. & Ohshima, Y. Active uptake of artificial particles in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. J. Exp. Biol. 215, 1178–1183 (2012).
142. Rondoni, G., Chierici, E., Agnelli, A. & Conti, E. Microplastics alter behavioural responses of an insect herbivore to a plant-soil system. Sci. Total Environ. 787, 147716 (2021).
143. Huerta Lwanga, E. et al. Incorporation of microplastics from litter into burrows of Lumbricus terrestris. Environ. Pollut. 220, 523–531 (2017).
144. Yang, X. et al. Biogenic transport of glyphosate in the presence of LDPE microplastics: A mesocosm experiment. Environ. Pollut. 245, 829–835 (2019).
145. Ju, H., Yang, X., Osman, R. & Geissen, V. Effects of microplastics and chlorpyrifos on earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) and their biogenic transport in sandy soil. Environ. Pollut. 316, 120483 (2023).
146. Selonen, S. et al. Modulation of chlorpyrifos toxicity to soil arthropods by simultaneous exposure to polyester microfibers or tire particle microplastics. Appl. Soil Ecol. 181, 104657 (2023).
147. Martín, C. et al. Bioassays to assess the ecotoxicological impact of polyethylene microplastics and two organic pollutants, simazine and ibuprofen. Chemosphere 274, 129704 (2021).
148. Kim, S. W., Liang, Y., Lozano, Y. M. & Rillig, M. C. Microplastics Reduce the Negative Effects of Litter-Derived Plant Secondary Metabolites on Nematodes in Soil. Front. Environ. Sci. 9, (2021).
149. Hernández-Gutiérrez, E. et al. Morphospecies Abundance of Above-Ground Invertebrates in Agricultural Systems under Glyphosate and Microplastics in South-Eastern Mexico. Environments 8, 130 (2021).
150. Dolar, A. et al. Microplastics, chlorpyrifos and their mixtures modulate immune processes in the terrestrial crustacean Porcellio scaber. Sci. Total Environ. 772, 144900 (2021).
151. Hua, L., Wang, M. & Wei, X. Response of Brassica chinensis L to the stress of combined pollution of microplastics and cypermethrin. Environ. Technol. 1–10 (2025) doi:10.1080/09593330.2025.2521515.
152. Ju, H., Yang, X., Tang, D., Osman, R. & Geissen, V. Pesticide bioaccumulation in radish produced from soil contaminated with microplastics. Sci. Total Environ. 910, 168395 (2024).
153. Lin, Y. et al. Effect of propiconazole on plastic film microplastic degradation: Focusing on the change in microplastic morphology and heavy metal distribution. Sci. Total Environ. 822, 153609 (2022).
154. Ju, H., Yang, X., Osman, R. & Geissen, V. The role of microplastic aging on chlorpyrifos adsorption-desorption and microplastic bioconcentration. Environ. Pollut. 331, 121910 (2023).
155. Ramos, L., Berenstein, G., Hughes, E. A., Zalts, A. & Montserrat, J. M. Polyethylene film incorporation into the horticultural soil of small periurban production units in Argentina. Sci. Total Environ. 523, 74–81 (2015).
156. Li, R. et al. Effect of prothioconazole on the degradation of microplastics derived from mulching plastic film: Apparent change and interaction with heavy metals in soil. Environ. Pollut. 260, 113988 (2020).
157. Zhang, S. et al. Effects of the coexistence of polystyrene microplastics and imidacloprid on nitrogen and phosphorus transformation in soil. Front. Environ. Sci. Eng. 19, 15 (2025).
158. Wang, K. et al. Interactions of traditional and biodegradable microplastics with neonicotinoid pesticides. Sci. Total Environ. 947, 174512 (2024).
159. Sun, W. et al. Combined ingestion of polystyrene microplastics and epoxiconazole increases health risk to mice: Based on their synergistic bioaccumulation in vivo. Environ. Int. 166, 107391 (2022).
160. Fu, H. et al. Combined ecotoxicological effects of different-sized polyethylene microplastics and imidacloprid on the earthworms (Eisenia fetida). Sci. Total Environ. 870, 161795 (2023).
161. Fu, H. et al. Metabolomics and microbiomics revealed the combined effects of different-sized polystyrene microplastics and imidacloprid on earthworm intestinal health and function. Environ. Pollut. 361, 124799 (2024).
162. Wu, C. et al. Combined effects of mulch film-derived microplastics and pesticides on soil microbial communities and element cycling. J. Hazard. Mater. 466, 133656 (2024).
163. Liang, L. et al. Impacts of the coexistence of polystyrene microplastics and pesticide imidacloprid on soil nitrogen transformations and microbial communities. J. Environ. Manage. 370, 123054 (2024).
164. Baihetiyaer, B. et al. Exploring the toxicity of biodegradable microplastics and imidacloprid to earthworms (Eisenia fetida) from morphological and gut microbial perspectives. Environ. Pollut. 337, 122547 (2023).
165. Gao, Q., Lu, X., Li, J., Wang, P. & Li, M. Impact of microplastics on nicosulfuron accumulation and bacteria community in soil-earthworms system. J. Hazard. Mater. 465, 133414 (2024).
166. Gautam, K. et al. Combined effects of polyethylene microplastics and carbendazim on Eisenia fetida: A comprehensive ecotoxicological study. Environ. Pollut. 348, 123854 (2024).
Other Information ⌄
Article History
Received: 13 September 2025
Revised: 05 June 2026
Accepted: 31 August 2026
Published: 24 September 2026
Version of record: 24 September 2026
How to Cite?
Hanif, M. N., Abbood, N. K., Babur, M., Akhtar, M., Sun, H., Azam, K., Akhtar, M. N., Ain, Q. u. (2026). Microplastics as pesticide vectors in soil: bridging aqueous insights to terrestrial co-contamination risks and ecosystem impacts. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 23(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-026-07459-9
Contributions
Muhammad Nauman Hanif: Designed the study, developed the team, and contributed majorly to the original draft’s write-up. Muhammad Akhtar, Khadija Azam, Qurat ul Ain, Muhammad Naeem Akhtar: participated in the write-up. Nabeel Kadhim Abbood, Muhammad Babur, Hao Sun, Muhammad Naeem Akhtar: Supervised the study and Revised the Manuscript.
Declaration of Generative AI in Scientific Writing
We, the authors of this paper, hereby declare our use of Grammarly.com, ChatGPT, and DeepSeek for the comprehensive language checkup, specifically to identify and correct grammatical errors and spelling mistakes. After using these tools, the authors thoroughly reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.
Conflict of interest
No known competing financial interests or personal relationships could have influenced the work reported in this paper.
Funding
No funding or any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors was received for this work.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
Manuscript Availability Statement
This webpage hosts the Accepted Manuscript of the article:
Hanif, M. N., Abbood, N. K., Babur, M., Akhtar, M., Sun, H., Azam, K., Akhtar, M. N., Ain, Q. u. (2026). Microplastics as pesticide vectors in soil: bridging aqueous insights to terrestrial co-contamination risks and ecosystem impacts. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 23(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-026-07459-9
This version of the article has been accepted for publication after peer review, but is not the Version of Record and does not reflect post-acceptance improvements or corrections, including copy-editing and typesetting.
The Version of Record is published by Springer Nature B.V. in the journal International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology and is available online via the publisher’s website at:
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-026-07459-9
This Accepted Manuscript is made available on the author’s personal, self-maintained website in accordance with the Springer Nature License to Publish agreement. The content is provided for personal research and educational purposes only and may not be enhanced, substantially reformatted, redistributed, or used for commercial purposes without permission from the publisher.
Use of this Accepted Manuscript is subject to the Springer Nature Accepted Manuscript Terms of Use, available here:
Click Here To Read.
Copyright © The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Iranian Society of Environmentalists (IRSEN) and Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University 2026.